Темы по английскому.


THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The United States of America, popularly called "The States".  "U.S.A",  "The
Land of Liberty" is a vast country stretching across  the  middle  of  North
America. This country which at one time inhabited by  Red  Indians,  is  now
the home of "nation of nations". as people from  every  part  of  the  world
have gone to live in this land of wealth and promise.  These  settlers  met,
mingled, and worked  with  great  enterprise,  and  as  a  result  of  their
efforts, the United States has become one of the  most  important  countries
in the world.
In 1620 the; Pilgrim Fathers, a band  of  Puritans  in  England  who  sought
freedom of worship, set forth for America  in  the  sailing-ship  Mayflower.
Three months after leaving Plymouth Harbour,  they  reached  the  shores  of
what is now  called  new  England,  and  Founded  the  America  township  of
Plymouth. Although they often  had  difficult  times  with  the  native  Red
Indian tribes, the colony soon prospered and more and more  settlers  joined
them. The Indians used a new  kind  of  grain,  which  the  settlers  called
"Indian corn" (now termed maize) and they ate strange birds called  turkeys.
On the fourth Thursday of November the Americans celebrate Thanksgiving  Day
with a feast of turkey and Indian corn.
A great many emigrants went from European countries to America and  thirteen
colonies were formed, all of them under  English  rule.  The  government  in
England, however, took little interest  in  the  American  colonies,  except
from the point of view of trade. When certain taxes and  laws  were  ordered
by the English Parliament, the colonists opposed them and it  gradually  led
to war. At first the colonists fared  badly,  but  later  they  rallied  and
eventually  won  final  victory,  under  the  able  leadership   of   George
Washington.
Shortly after the discovery of the New World  by  Columbus,  many  Spaniards
travelled northward from Mexico and  settled  along  the  western  coast  of
America. That is why many places in this area such  as  San  Francisco,  Los
Angeles, Sacramento, and Santa Barbara  have  Spanish  names.  In  1849  the
chance discovery of gold brought many  people  to  California  and  numerous
mining towns sprang up in a very short time. "The Golden Gate" (the  channel
connecting the harbour of San Francisco  with  the  Pacific  Ocean)  was  so
called because many of the seekers of the precious yellow metal passed  this
way to and from the rich gold-fields.
In American cities, men have built  huge  buildings  (skyscrapers)  some  as
many as fifty flats high. The national  capital  of  the  United  States  is
Washington and the White House is the home  of  the  President.  The  famous
Statue of Liberty in New York harbour was a gift from France.
While English is the national language of the country, some immigrants  have
continued the manners, customs, and  even  tongue  of  their  homeland,  and
newspapers, in all languages, may be seen in the book-stalls. Here are  some
common English words, for which the Americans have different names:  sweets-
candies, shop-store,  motor-car-automobile,  pavement-sidewalk,  petrol-gas,
lift-elevator,  dust-bin,  garbage-can,  holiday-vacation,   trousers-pants,
waistcoat-vest, a jug-pitcher. There are also differences  in  the  spelling
of certain words: colour-color, honour-honor, programme-program.
The national banner of the United States of America, commonly known as  "The
Starts and Stripes" or "Old Glory", is  a  flag  bearing  50  stars  and  13
stripes. Each star represents a present-day state  and  each  stripe  stands
for one  of  the  original  colonies.  The  national  anthem  is  the  "Star
Sprangled Banner" and the national emblems are the eagle  and  the  buffalo.
The national sport may be said to be baseball.


CLIMATE AND NATURE OF GREAT BRITAIN
CLIMATE
The climate in Great Britain is generally mild  and  temperate  due  to  the
influence of the Gulf Stream. The south-western winds carry the  warmth  and
moisture into Britain. The climate in Britain is usually described as  cool,
temperate and humid.
British people say: "Other countries have a  climate,  in  England  we  have
weather."
The weather in Britain changes very quickly. One day may  be  fine  and  the
next day may be wet. The morning may be warm and the evening  may  be  cool.
Therefore it is natural for the people to use the comparison "as  changeable
as the weather" of a person who often changes  his  mood  or  opinion  about
something. The weather is the favourite topic of  conversation  in  Britain.
When two Englishmen are introduced to each other, if  they  can't  think  of
any thing else to talk about, they talk about weather. When two people  meet
in the street they will often say something  about  weather  as  they  pass,
just to show their friendliness.
Every  daily  paper  publishes  a  weather  forecast.  Both  the  radio  and
television give the weather forecast several times each day.
The English also say that they have  three  variants  of  weather:  when  it
rains in the morning, when it rains in the afternoon or when  in  rains  all
day long. Sometimes it rains so heavily that they  say  "It's  raining  cats
and dogs".
Rainfall is more or less even throughout the year. In  the  mountains  there
is heavier rainfall then in the plains of the south  and  east.  The  driest
period is from March to June and the wettest  months  are  from  October  to
January. The average range of temperature (from winter to  summer)  is  from
15 to 23  degrees  above  zero.  During  a  normal  summer  the  temperature
sometimes rises above 30 degrees in the south. Winter temperatures below  10
degrees are rare. It seldom snows heavily in  winter,  the  frost  is  rare.
January and February are usually the coldest months,  July  and  August  the
warmest. Still the wind may bring winter cold  in  spring  or  summer  days.
Sometimes it brings the whirlwinds or hurricanes. Droughts are rare.
So, we may say that the British climate  has  three  main  features:  it  is
mild, humid and changeable. That means that it  is  never  too  hot  or  too
cold. Winters are extremely mild. Snow may come but  it  melts  quickly.  In
winter the cold is humid cold, not the dry one.
This humid and mild climate is good for plants. The trees and flowers  begin
to blossom early in spring.
In the British homes there has been no central  heating  up  till  recently.
The fireplaces are often used. but  the  coal  is  not  used  as  it's  very
expensive. Britain has no good coal now and imports it itself. Many  schools
and universities have no central heating either, and the  floors  there  are
made of stone. The British bedroom is especially  cold,  sometimes  electric
blankets or hotwater bottles are used.


LONDON - THE CAPITAL OF GREAT BRITAIN
When we think of Paris, Rome. Madrid, Lisbon and  other  European  capitals,
we think of them as "cities'. When we think of the whole of  modern  London,
the capital city  of  England  and  the  United  Kingdom,  that  great  area
covering several hundred square kilometres, we do not  think  of  it  as  'a
city. not even as a city and its suburbs. Modem London is not one city  that
has steadily become larger through the centuries; it is a number of  cities.
towns, and villages that have, during the past centuries, grown together  to
make one vast urban area.
London is situated upon both banks of the River Thames, it  is  the  largest
city in Britain and one of the largest  in  the  world.  Its  population  is
about 7 million people.
London dominates the life of Britain. It is the chief port  of  the  country
and the most important commercial, manufacturing and cultural centre.  There
is little heavy industry in London, but there  is  a  wide  range  of  light
industry in Greater London.
London consists of three parts: the City of London, the  West  End  and  the
East End.
The City extends over an area of about 2.6 square kilometres  in  the  heart
of London. About half a million people work in the City but only  less  than
6000 live here. It is the financial  centre  of  the  UK  with  many  banks,
offices and Stock Exchange. But the City is  also  a  market  for  goods  of
almost every kind, from all parts of the world.
The West End can be called the centre of Tendon.  Here  are  the  historical
palaces as well as the famous parks. Hyde Park with its Speaker's Corner  is
also here. Among other parks are Kensington  Gardens,  St.James's  Park.  In
the West End is Buckingham Palace. Which is the Queen's residence,  and  the
Palace of Westminster which is the seat of Parliament.
The  best-known  streets  here  are  Whitehall  with  important   Government
offices. Downing Street, the London residence  of  Prime  Minister  and  the
place where the Cabinet meets.  Fleet  Street  where  most  newspapers  have
their offices, Harley Street where the highest paid doctors live,  and  some
others.
Trafalgar Square is named so in commemoration of Nelson's great victory.  In
the middle stands the famous Nelson Column with the  statue  of  Nelson  170
feet high so as to allow him a view of the sea. The  column  stands  in  the
geographical centre of the city. It is one of the best  open  air  platforms
for public meetings and demonstrations.
One of the "musts" for the sightseer are the Houses  of  Parliament,  facing
the Thames, on one side, and Parliament Square  and  Westminster  Abbey,  on
the other. The House of Commons sits to the side of  the  Clock  Tower  (Big
Ben), the House of Lords - to the Victoria Tower side.
Westminster Abbey is the crowning and burial place of British  monarchs.  It
has its world famed Poet's Corner with memorials  to  Chaucer,  Shakespeare,
Milton, the  Bronte's  sisters.  Tennyson.  Longfellow,  Wordsworth,  Burns,
Dickens, Thackeray, Hardy, Kipling and other leading  writers.  Only  a  few
however, are actually buried there.
Here too is that touching symbol of a  nation's  grief.  The  Grave  of  the
Unknown Warrior.
The name "West End" came to be associated with wealth, luxury, and goods  of
high quality. It is the area of the largest department stores,  cinemas  and
hotels. There are about 40 theatres, several  concert  halls,  many  museums
including the British Museum, and the best art galleries.
It is in the West End  where  the  University  of  London  is  centred  with
Bloomsbury as London's student quarter.
The Port of London is to the east of the City. Here.  today  are  kilometres
and kilometres of docks, and the great industrial  areas  that  depend  upon
shipping. This is the East End of London, unattractive  in  appearance,  but
very important to the country's commerce.
In recent times London has grown so large. that the Government  has  decided
that it must spread no farther. It is now surrounded by a "green belt"  -  a
belt of agricultural and wooded land on which new buildings may  be  put  up
only with the permission of the planning authorities.


SOME FACTS ABOUT LONDON
London has been home of many famous Englishmen. Some were born  there.  Some
lived there all their lives. Others lived in London only for  a  short  time
but all gave something to this great city
One of the first names of importance is that of Geoffrey Chaucer, the  poet.
He lived most of his life in London. He knew the courts of King  Richard  II
d King Henry IV. His most famous work, 'The Canterbury Tales", opens at  the
Tabard Inn, in Southwark. Chaucer held  official  posts  in  London  and  is
buried in Westminster Abbey.
William Shakespeare also lived in London.  He  lived  there  for  more  than
twenty years. He acted at the Globe Theatre and wrote his plays  in  London.
But London's famous men are not only  writers.  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the
architect, spent most of his life in  London.  He  designed  many  beautiful
churches, including St. Paul's Cathedral. He also designed palaces and  fine
houses.
Music is represented by a very interesting figure. This is George  Frederick
Handel. He came to London from Hanover in 1710.  He  lived  for  a  time  at
Burlington House, Piccadilly, now the Royal Academy. After some success  and
some failure he at last became famous. This happened when he  composed  "The
Messiah". "Judas Maccabeus". and 'The Music for the Royal  Fireworks".  Like
Chaucer and many other  great  artists.  Handel  is  buried  in  Westminster
Abbey.
Another famous London figure is one of England's  greatest  seamen.  Admiral
Lord Nelson. He has  a  very  special  memorial  in  Trafalgar  Square.  The
monument consists of a very tall column. On top of it  stands  a  figure  of
Nelson. It is called the Nelson Column. Equally famous is  the  general  who
led the army at the battle of  Waterloo  in  1815.  This  was  the  Duke  of
Wellington. His house stands at Hyde Park Comer. It is  sometimes  known  as
Number One, London. Like Admiral Nelson, the Duke of  Wellington  is  buried
in St. Paul's Cathedral.


Houses of Parliament
From the center of Westminster Bridge one can have a splendid view of the
H. of P. The structure is a remarkable example of Gothic architecture.
Royal Palaces and houses were built along the banks of the Thames in
medie’val days, because the water was a busy way into and out of London.
The H.P. called officially the Palace of Westmister were a palace for
queens and kings. The palace was used both as a royal residence and also as
a parliament house until the 16th century. In 1834 the H.P. were destroyed
by the fire. Sir Charles Barry was asked to plan the building and August
Pugin was commissioned to make it look gothic. The result is the Palace of
Westminster. The odd combination of these two men produced a triumph. The
H.P. is the biggest Gothic palace in the world, and by far the most
impressive. During the Second World War a bomb destroyed the House of
Commons – the principal chamber in the whole complex  It was decided to
rebuild it exactly the same size. The H.P. contain the universal symbol of
L., Big Ben. B.B. is actually the name of the biggest bell inside the Clock
Tower which forms part of the H.P.
The Palace of Westminster has two miles of corridors and more than 1000
rooms. When Parliament is sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. The
House of Lords looks more splendid with its beautiful red benches than the
House of Commons. There is the throne for the Queen and the woolsack for
the Lord Chancellor there. Visitors can watch the Parliament at work from
the Strangers’ Gallery. The Speaker sits on the green chair.


Parliament Square
Westminster Abbey is on one side, the Houses of  Parliament  on  the  other.
The buildings of the Houses of Parliament is not old,  it  dates  only  from
the 19th century, and is in the Gothic style.  When  the  Parliament  has  a
sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. It is  the  national  flag  of
the United Kingdom. Another tower, the Clock Tower, is famous for  the  hour
bell and the clock named “Big Ben”. Only a short  way  from  the  Houses  of
Parliament there is one of the most beautiful of  all  English  buildings  –
W.A., founded in the 11th century. There are many tombstones, monuments  and
statues there. For nearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of  England  –
41 in all – have been crowned here. If u go past the magnificent  tombstones
of kings and queens, some made of gold and precious stones u  will  come  to
the Poets’ Corner. There many of the greatest writers were buried.  Geoffrey
Chauser, Samuel Johnson, Charles Dickens,  Alfred  Tennyson,  Thomas  Hardy,
Rudyard Kipling. Burns and Byron, Walter Scott and the great  American  poet
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Here in the Abbey there is  also  the  Grave  of
the Unknown Warrior that commemorate the men who died  on  the  First  World
War.
The square has a lot of statues  including  Richard  the  Pion-Hearted,  and
Oliver Cromvell. It also has the masterpiece of Sir Henry Mur –  the  statue
of Sir Winston Churchill.


St.Paul’s Cathedral
The City’s greatest monument and on of the finest Renaissance cathedrals  in
Europe is St.Paul’s Cathedral. The old cathedral  was  completely  destroyed
by the Great Fire of London in 1666. People  put  their  belongings  in  the
church, thinking it was safe, but the fire soon reached it. It  was  so  hot
it turned the church bells into molten  metal.  Christopher  When  a  famous
English architect,  was  commissioned  to  rebuild  Saint  Paul’s.  He  made
several plans before one was accepted. In the Crypt of the  church  you  can
see scale models of his rejected designs. It took nearly 35 years  to  build
the Cathedral, being finished in 1710. Running around the  interior  of  the
dome is the famous Whispering Gallery. It  is  called  so  because  you  can
clearly hear the whisper made by someone who is  standing  on  the  opposite
side of the gallery. Big Paul, the heaviest bell in the country, is  in  the
northern bell tower at the front of Saint Paul’s. It rings every weekday  at
1 p.m. to let people know that it is lunchtime. Another bell Big Tom,  tolls
when a monarch or important churchmen die. The church  bells  in  the  other
tower are rung on Sundays and to celebrate great occasions


The City
All the principle streets of London lead to  the  heart  of  the  City,  the
financial and business center of  Great  Britain.  The  City  is  about  one
square mile in area and only a few thousand people live there. But  by  day,
many people swarm its streets and  offices.  Here  there  are  the  Bank  of
England, The  Stock  Exchange  and  headquarters  of  many  of  the  richest
companies and corporations in the world. The City’s  greatest  monument  and
on of the finest Renaissance cathedrals in Europe  is  St.Paul’s  Cathedral.
The old cathedral was completely destroyed by the Great Fire  of  London  in
1666. People put their belongings in the church, thinking it was  safe,  but
the fire soon reached it. It was so hot it  turned  the  church  bells  into
molten metal. Christopher When a famous English architect, was  commissioned
to rebuild Saint Paul’s. He made several  plans  before  one  was  accepted.
Running around the interior of the dome is the  famous  Whispering  Gallery.
It is called so because you can clearly hear the  whisper  made  by  someone
who is standing on the opposite side of the gallery.
Tower Bridge is the only Thames bridge which can be raised.  The  road  over
the bridge is built on two central sections called bascules, which open  two
or three times a week to let ships through. There are  displays  inside  the
bridge on its history. (T.S.+W.A.+H.P.)



                      The Climate of the British Isles


      The position of Great Britain gives it a  temperate  climate.  Britain
lies in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is surrounded by the  sea
which makes the climate warmer in winter and  cooler  in  summer.  The  Gulf
Stream influences the English climate greatly. The climate is not  the  same
in all parts of England. The western part is warmer  than  the  eastern  one
and it also has more rains. The western hills and mountains  shut  out  some
of the mild wind from the  Atlantic.  On  Western  coast  gales  are  always
strong. The south-western winds are the most frequent.  They  usually  bring
mild weather. There is much humidity in the air. Britain is well known as  a
foggy country. The annual temperature in London is about 8 degrees C.
      Scotland is a part of Britain and Wales. Scotland is  bounded  on  the
north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the North Sea, on the  southeast
by England, southwest by the Irish Sea  and  on  the  west  by  the  Western
Isles. Like the climate of the rest of Great Britain, that  of  Scotland  is
subject to the moderating influences of the surrounding seas.  As  a  result
of these influences, extreme seasonal variations  are  rare,  and  temperate
winters  and  cool  summers  are  the  outstanding  climatic  features.  Low
temperatures,  however,  are  common  during  the  winter  season   in   the
mountainous districts of the interior. In the western coastal region,  which
is subject to the moderating effects of  the  Gulf  Stream,  conditions  are
somewhat milder than is the east. The average temperature in  January  is  4
degrees C and in July is about 15 degrees C. Scotland’s weather  is  similar
to Wales and England.
      Wales is a part of the United  Kingdom.  It  also  includes  the  mall
island off Wales called Anglesey. Wales is  bounded  on  the  North  by  the
Irish Sea, on the east by the English counties, on the South by the  Bristol
Channel, and the west by Saint George. Wales is almost  all  mountains.  The
tops of the mountains are covered with the snow. The  climate  in  Wales  is
very moist and mild like in the United Kingdom. The average  temperature  in
January is about 6 degrees C and in July is about 16 degrees C.
      Ireland’s climate is mainly determined by its position  in  the  north
temperate zone and the effect of the warm waters of  the  Gulf  Stream.  The
climate is relatively uniform throughout. The prevailing  west  winds  carry
rain from the Atlantic, resulting in heavier rainfall  in  the  western  and
southern parts of the country. Summers are relatively cool,  with  July  and
August being the warmest months, whilst winters  are  relatively  mild  with
January and February being the coldest months. Snow  falls  occasionally  in
winter months but it is rarely prolonged and usually only lasts  for  a  few
days.


The Royal Residences
Kensington Palace is a royal palace in London. Originally a private  country
house, the building was acquired by William III and Mary II in 1689 and  was
adopted for royal residence by Sir Christopher Wren. Kensington House as  it
was known became William and Mary’s principal residence.  For  the  next  70
years the palace was at the  center  of  the  life  and  government  of  the
kingdom and played host to the courts  of  William  and  Mary,  Queen  Anne,
George I and George II.
In the XIX century Kensington  was  the  birthplace  and  home  of  Princess
Victoria (later Queen Victoria). By the  end  of  19th  century,  the  State
Apartments at Kensington Palace were in a very bad state  of  repair  having
been used as stores for paintings and furnishings  from  other  palaces.  In
April 1897 a decision was made to restore the palace and  Parliament  agreed
to fund the work on the condition that the building should be opened  up  to
the public. Parts of the palace remains a private residence for  members  of
the  royal  family,  the  State  Apartments  and  Royal   Ceremonial   Dress
Collection are open to the public.
Buckingham Palace is the London home of the Queen  and  Prince  Philip.  The
Palace is also the administrative headquarters of the  monarchy.  The  Queen
receives visiting heads of state at the palace  and  it  is  here  that  the
Queen holds garden parties and bestowed knighthoods and other honours.  Foot
Guards from the Household Division  in  their  distinctive  red  tunics  and
black bearskins, can be seen on guard duty outside  the  palace  daily.  The
Changing the Guard ceremony now takes place only  every  other  day  in  the
winter but it is still daily in the summer  months.  After  a  serious  fire
damaged Winsdor Castle in 1993 the Queen allowed the Palace State  rooms  to
be opened to the public for the first time, to help pay the  Winsdor  Castle
repair bill.


The Tower of London
The Tower of London doesn’t belong to the City, though it  stood  there  for
almost 900 years. It is more connected with the royal  dynasties  than  with
the world of business. It was originally built as a fortress  to  guard  the
river approaches to London. The Tower of London was  begun  by  William  the
Conqueror in 1078 as a castle and palace. Since then it has  been  expanded,
and used as an armoury, a zoo, a royal mint and a prison, a treasury and  an
observatory. A group of ravens live at the Tower. The  tradition  goes  that
if they disappear the building will collapse. For centuries a royal zoo  was
kept in the grounds. It once included a polar bear, which  fished  and  swam
in the moat. Now it is a museum and the Beefeaters  (Yeoman  Warders)  guard
the Tower. They used to be the monarch’s private bodyguard. Beefeater was  a
medieval nickname for well-fed servants. They wear a Tudor-style uniform  of
blue or red. They willingly show visitors the main places  of  interest.  In
some Tower rooms there are  inscriptions  carved  on  the  walls  by  former
prisoners. In Salt Tower  you  can  see  a  complicated  astronomical  clock
carved by a sixteenth century prisoner accused of black magic.


Trafalgar Square
T.S. is London’s geographical center. It was laid out during the early part
of the 19th century to commemorate the naval victory of Britain over the
French at Trafalgar in 1805, in which Admiral Lord Nelson took part and was
fatally wounded. The Nelson column with the statue of Admiral Nelson on top
of it is 185 feet (5 metres) high. At the base of the column you can see
four bronze lions which are guarding it and were cast from the cannon of
battleships. On October 21st there is a service under the column to
commemorate Nelson. The east and west sides of the square are gracefully
flanked by plane trees. Beyond the terrace above the north side stands the
National Gallery; on the lawns in front of the Gallery stands a statue of
James II, to the west of the main entrance, and to the east a statue of
George Washington. Among other important buildings surrounding the square
are the church of St.Martin-in-the-Fields. T.S. has long been the place for
political meetings and demonstrations, including those of the Chartists who
began their march here in 1848. More recently it has become the terminal
point of protest marches. Every year at Christmas time an enormous
Christmas tree is erected, the annual gift, since the 2nd World War, of the
Norwegian people. On New Year’s Eve T.S.. is always the scene of
celebrations. Not far from T.S. there is a quiet little street with very
ordinary houses. So you may be surprised to see a policeman who is standing
at one of the houses. It is Downing Street and for the last two hundred
years at No.10 each Prime Minister of England has been living there.
Downing Street leads to Whitehall. There was a palace here once, where from
the 12th to the 16th century the English Kings and Queens were living. Now
it is just a street of government offices. Here in the middle of the read
there is simple but impressive Cenotaph, the Memorial to the men who died
in the two World Wars.


Westminster Abbey
W.A was founded in the 11th century. It is a  fine  Gothic  building,  which
stands opposite the Houses of Parliament. It is the work of many  hands  and
different ages. The oldest part  of  the  building  dates  from  the  eights
century. It was a monastery – the West Minster. In the 11th  century  Edward
the Confessor founded a great Norman Abbey. One of the  greater  glories  of
the Abbey is the Chapel of Henry VII. The Chapel is of stone and  glass,  so
wonderfully cut  and  sculptured  that  it  seems  unreal.  There  are  many
tombstones, monuments and statues in the Abbey. For nearly  1000  years  all
the Kings and Queens of England – 41 in all – have been crowned here.  If  u
go past the magnificent tombstones of kings and queens, some  made  of  gold
and precious stones u will come to the Poets’  Corner.  There  many  of  the
greatest writers were buried.  Geoffrey  Chauser,  Samuel  Johnson,  Charles
Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling.  Burns  and  Byron,
Walter Scott and the great American poet Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow.  Here
in  the  Abbey  there  is  also  the  Grave  of  the  Unknown  Warrior  that
commemorate the men who died on the First World War.


Moscow (1)
Moscow is the capital of Russia. The city is located in western Russia and
lies in the broad, shallow valley of the Moskva River, a tributary of the
Oka and thus of the Volga, in the centre of the vast plain of European
Russia. This region is one of the most highly developed and densely
populated areas of Russia.
The climate of Moscow is of the continental type, modified by the temperate
influence of westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Winters are cold and
long, summers are short and mild . The moderate annual precipitation occurs
predominantly in the summer months, often in brief, heavy downpours. Only a
small percentage of Moscow's population is employed in the city centre
because of the decentralization of workplaces. Industry is the dominant
source of employment, followed by science and research. Although Moscow's
role in the country's administration is of prime importance, government as
a source of employment is relatively minor. Engineering (production of
automobiles and trucks, ball bearings, machine tools, and precision
instruments) and metalworking are by far the most important industries.
Other important activities include the manufacture of textiles, chemicals
and derivative products, and consumer goods (foodstuffs, footwear, and
pianos); timber processing; construction; and printing and publishing.
Moscow is the headquarters of state insurance and banking organizations.
The pattern of rings and radials that marked the historical stages of
Moscow's growth remains evident in its modern layout. Successive epochs of
development are traced by the Boulevard Ring and the Garden Ring (both
following the line of former fortifications), the Moscow Little Ring
Railway, and the Moscow Ring Road. From 1960 to the mid-1980s the Ring Road
was the administrative limit of the city, but several areas of the largely
greenbelt zone beyond the road have been annexed since then. The centre of
the city and the historical heart of Moscow is the fortified enclosure of
the Kremlin. Its crenellated redbrick walls and 20 towers (19 with spires)
were built at the end of the 15th century and were partially rebuilt in
later years. Within the walls of the Kremlin are located the meeting places
of the government of Russia. Among these are the former Senate building
(1776-88), the Kremlin Great Palace (1838-49), and the modern Palace of
Congresses (1960-61). Other features within the Kremlin include the central
Cathedral Square, around which are grouped three cathedrals, all examples
of Russian church architecture at its height in the late 15th and early
16th centuries; a group of palaces of various periods; the white bell tower
of Ivan III the Great; the Armoury Museum; and the Arsenal (1702-36). Along
the east wall of the Kremlin lies Red Square, the ceremonial centre of the
capital. The Lenin Mausoleum stands beneath the Kremlin walls, and the
Church of the Intercession, or Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed, is at
the southern end of the square. The State Department Store, GUM, faces the
Kremlin, and the State Historical Museum (1875-83) closes off the northern
end of the square. In the remainder of central Moscow, within the Garden
Ring, are buildings representative of every period of Moscow's development
from the 15th century to the present. Examples of the Moscow Baroque style,
the Classical period, and the revivalist Old Russian style may be found. In
the Soviet period streets were widened, and much of the old part of the
inner city was demolished and replaced by large office and apartment
buildings, government ministries, headquarters of national and
international bodies and organizations, hotels and larger shops, and
principal cultural centres. Beyond the Garden Ring is a middle zone
dominated by 18th- and 19th-century developments; many factories, railway
stations, and freight yards are located there. Since 1960 extensive urban
renewal has occurred, producing neighbourhoods of high-rise apartment
buildings. The outer zone has been the site of modern factory development
and extensive housing construction in the 20th century. Beyond the newer
suburbs are areas of open land and forest, together with satellite
industrial towns and dormitory suburbs. Moscow's inhabitants are
overwhelmingly of Russian nationality, but members of more than 100 other
nationalities and ethnic groups also live there. Population density, though
lowered by outward expansion of the city, has remained high because of the
vast number of large apartment buildings. Moscow has a large concentration
of educational institutions, and its centres of higher education draw
students from throughout Russia. Moscow State University (1755) is the
leading educational institution. The city's many specialized educational
institutions include the Moscow Timiryazev Academy of Agriculture and the
Moscow P.I. Tchaikovsky State Conservatory. Scientific research is
conducted by the Academy of Sciences of Russia and many institutions linked
to industry. The city's libraries include the V.I. Lenin State Library.
Theatre, music, and art are important in the city's life. The State
Academic Bolshoi ("Great") Theatre (1825), Maly ("Little") Theatre, and
Moscow Art Theatre are especially renowned. Of the many museums and
galleries, the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the State Tretyakov
Gallery are notable. Few people in Moscow own automobiles, necessitating
heavy reliance on public transportation provided by the Metropolitan
(Metro) subway, buses, streetcars, and trolleybuses. The Metro system,
which reflects the city's street patterns, is known for the elaborate
architecture of its stations. Moscow is the centre of the country's rail
network, on which freight transport is heavily dependent. Trunk rail lines
radiate from the city in all directions to major Russian population and
industrial centres, to Ukraine, Belarus, and eastern Europe, and to Central
Asia. Suburban commuter traffic is facilitated by the Moscow Little Ring
Railway (1908) and the Greater Moscow Ring Railway, which link radial
lines. Passenger trains connect to destinations throughout Russia and
Europe. Moscow is also a major river port and is served by the Moscow
Canal. The Volga's various canals link Moscow to all the seas surrounding
European Russia. Moscow is the centre of the country's airline network; the
Sheremetyevo airport, in the north, handles international flights.


Moscow (2)
One of the world's great cities, Moscow (Russian Moskva) is the capital of
Russia. Since it was first mentioned in chronicles of 1147, Moscow has
played a vital role in Russian history; indeed the history of the city and
of the Russian nation are closely interlinked. Today Moscow is not only the
political centre of Russia but also the country's leading city in
population, in industrial output, and in cultural, scientific, and
educational importance. For more than 600 years Moscow has been the
spiritual centre of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) until its
dissolution in 1991, Moscow attracted world attention as a centre of
Communist power; the name of the seat of the former Soviet government and
successor Russian government, the Kremlin (Russian Kreml), became a synonym
for Soviet authority. The dissolution of the U.S.S.R. brought economic and
political change, along with a degree of uncertainty over the future, to
the city. Moscow covers an area of about 386 square miles (1,000 square
kilometres), its outer limit being roughly delineated by the Moscow Ring
Road. Most of the area beyond this highway has been designated as a Forest-
Park Zone, or greenbelt.


Moscow (3)
In March of 1918 Moscow became the capital. The supreme organs of state
power and many central institutions moved to Moscow from Petrograd. It was
extremely difficult in the years of the Civil war to see the image of a new
city in deserted and unheated Moscow.
The rapid growth of Moscow's population occurred during the twenties and
thirties, in 1931 work began to develop the Master Reconstruction Plan of
Moscow, a plan which many people abroad considered to be vain dream.
The city grew and changed, the streets and squares became wider, the wooden
houses at the former outskirts disappeared. But the buildings of cultural
and historical value were carefully preserved.
Today, as ever, the Kremlin with Red Square is the centre of Moscow. Here
Moscow began more than eight hundred years ago. The city has grown so vast
since, the present and the past are so closely interwoven that one can not
embrace it all at once.
Certain villages, distant country estates have become the new residential
areas of Moscow. New dwellings rose not only within the established parts
of Moscow but new neighbourhoods took shape in Tyoply Stan, Orekhovo-
Borisovo, Yasenevo.
In the past century Moscow went through the invasion of Napoleon's army
that forced all Muscovites to leave their city. Moscow was burned down but
was never conquered. Once the enemy was driven away. its inhabitants set
about building Moscow anew.
Nowadays in erecting new buildings, the Muscovites take care to preserve
its unique monuments. Its architectural ensembles have been formed over the
centuries and each generation added features of its Lime to the appearance
of the city.
The city has thousands of libraries, schools, kindergartens and nurseries,
hundreds of clubs and cinemas, dozens of higher educational establishments,
theatres, museums and stadiums.
Neither words nor convincing figures, however, can give a complete idea of
what had been done in Moscow. One has to visit Moscow plants and factories,
to stroll about its streets and squares, to see its new residential areas.
The Kremlin is now both a piece of living history and an ensemble of
masterpieces of Russian architecture.
The first thing that meets the eye is the redbrick walls of the Kremlin,
reinforced by 20 towers, five of which are also gates. The Kremlin's towers
are unique in appearance. Built in 1485, the Tainitsky Tower is the oldest.
The highest of them is the Trinity Tower which is 80 metres tall.
The Bolshoi Theatre was opened in 1825. The theatre seats 2,150. The
company has more than 900 members.
The State Tretyakov Gallery. The gallery's works of Russian fine arts range
from unique mosaics and icons of the 11th century to works of contemporary
artists. The gallery is named after great Russian Connoisseur Pavel
Tretyakov who left his collection as a gift to the nation. It has become
one of the most popular places of interest in Moscow since then.

The Kremlin
The Kremlin is the symbol of first Russian and later Soviet power and
authority. Its crenellated red brick walls and 20 towers were built at the
end of the 15th century, when a host of Italian builders arrived in Moscow
at the invitation of Ivan III the Great. Of the most important towers, the
Saviour (Spasskaya) Tower leading to Red Square was built in 1491 by Pietro
Solario, who designed most of the main towers; its belfry was added in 1624-
25. The chimes of its clock are broadcast by radio as a time signal to the
whole nation. Also on the Red Square front is the St. Nicholas (Nikolskaya)
Tower, built originally in 1491 and rebuilt in 1806. The two other
principal gate towers--the Trinity (Troitskaya) Tower, with a bridge and
outer barbican (the Kutafya Tower), and the Borovitskaya Tower--lie on the
western wall.
Within the Kremlin walls is one of the most striking and beautiful
architectural ensembles in the world: a combination of churches and
palaces, which are open to the public and are among the city's most popular
tourist attractions, and the highest offices of the state, which are
surrounded by strict security. Around the central Cathedral Square
(Sobornaya Ploshchad) are grouped three magnificent cathedrals, superb
examples of Russian church architecture at its height in the late 15th and
early 16th centuries. These and the other churches in the Kremlin ceased
functioning as places of worship after the Revolution and are now museums.
The white stone Cathedral of the Assumption (Uspensky Sobor) is the oldest,
built in 1475-79 in the Italianate-Byzantine style. Its pure, simple, and
beautifully proportioned lines and elegant arches are crowned by five
golden domes. The Orthodox metropolitans and patriarchs of the 14th to the
18th century are buried there. Across the square is the Cathedral of the
Annunciation (Blagoveshchensky Sobor), built in 1484-89 by craftsmen from
Pskov; though burned in 1547, it was rebuilt in 1562-64. Its cluster of
chapels is topped by golden roofs and domes. Inside are a number of early
15th-century icons attributed to Theophanes the Greek and to Andrey
Rublyov, considered by many to be the greatest of all Russian icon
painters. The third cathedral, the Archangel (Arkhangelsky), was rebuilt in
1505-08; in it are buried the princes of Moscow and tsars of Russia (except
Boris Godunov) up to the founding of St. Petersburg. Just off the square
stands the splendid, soaring white bell tower of Ivan the Great; built in
the 16th century and damaged in 1812, it was restored a few years later. At
its foot is the enormous Tsar Bell (Tsar-Kolokol), cast in 1733-35 but
never rung. Nearby is the Tsar Cannon (Tsar-Pushka), cast in 1586. Beside
the gun are located the mid-17th-century Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles
(Sobor Dvenadtsati Apostolov) and the adjoining Patriarchal Palace. On the
west of Cathedral Square is a group of palaces of various periods; the
Palace of Facets (Granovitaya Palata)--so called from the exterior finish
of faceted, white stone squares--was built in 1487-91. Behind it is the
Terem Palace of 1635-36, which incorporates several older churches,
including the Resurrection of Lazarus (Voskreseniye Lazarya), dating from
1393. Both became part of the Kremlin Great Palace, built as a royal
residence in 1838-49 and formerly used for sessions of the Supreme Soviet
of the U.S.S.R.; its long, yellow-washed facade dominates the riverfront.
It is connected to the Armoury Palace (Oruzheynaya Palata), built in 1844-
51 and now the Armoury Museum, housing a large collection of treasures of
the tsars. Along the northeast wall of the Kremlin are the Arsenal (1702-
36), the former Senate building (1776-88), and the School for Red
Commanders (1932-34). The only other Soviet-period building within the
Kremlin is the Palace of Congresses (1960-61), with a vast auditorium used
for political gatherings and as a theatre.


The British Press
The British press consists of several kinds of newspapers.
The national papers are the ones sold all over the country, with a large
circulation, giving general news.
There are two main types of national paper - the "popular" papers and the
"quality" papers. The popular papers are smaller in size (they are tabloid
size), with lots of pictures, big headlines and short articles. They are
easy to read and often contain little real information. They give much
space to opinions. They usually have "human interest" stories - stories
about ordinary people and events. Examples of this type of newspapers are
"The Daily Mail". "The Sun", etc.
"Quality" papers appeal to the more serious reader, who wants to read about
politics and foreign affairs. These papers such as "The Daily Telegraph",
"The Guardian" are bigger in size (they are called "broad-sheets"), with
longer articles and a wider coverage of events. They have different pages
for home news, foreign affairs, features articles, fashion, business, sport
and so on.
People in Britain buy more papers on Sunday than on weekdays. The Sunday
papers have a higher circulation than the dailies. As with the dailies,
there are both popular and quality Sunday newspapers. The quality ones have
different sections and a colour magazine (usually full of advertisements)


Television
Television is the most popular leisure pastime in Russia. Several
television channels are in operation: "Ostankino". "Russian Channel",
"Independent TV Channel - NTV". Besides them there are local TV channels
and local commercial TV channels in big cities and republics of Russia.
TV services provide programmes of general interest such as light
entertainment, sport, current affairs, serious drama, music. There are
programmes on arts, children's and family programmes, interview with
outstanding personalities, news reports covering international, national
and local events.
Much attention is paid to foreign films, American in particular, foreign TV
programmes and soap operas.
Television is one of the most popular mass media in Britain. Some 96 per
cent of population have television in their homes. It is estimated that
about 10 per cent of household have two or more sets. Average viewing time
per person is over 17 hours a week.
Four television channels are in operation: BBC-1. BBC-2. ITV. Channel-4.
The BBC has been providing regular television broadcasts since 1936. BBC
television productions come from main studios at the Television Centre in
west London and other studios in various parts of London.
The first regular independent television broadcast began in London in 1955.
Independent television programmes are produced at 18 studio centres
throughout the country.


THE OLYMPIC GAMES
The Olympic Games are one of the most spectacular reminders of the debt we
owe to the Greeks.
The original Olympic Games were held every four years in honour of Zeus,
the supreme god of Greek religion. The first record of the games dates from
776 B.C., but it is certain that they existed prior to that. They were held
continuously for over 1.000 years until they were abolished in the reign of
King Theodosius about 392 A.D. The Olympic festival was a great unifying
bond between the Independent city-states of Greece.
The important sports in the original Olympic Games were running, jumping,
wrestling, throwing the discus and throwing the javelin. Only men competed
and they wore no clothes in order to have greater freedom of movement. Each
competitor had to take the Olympic Oath - a promise to behave in a
sportsman-like fashion.
The modern Olympic era began in 1894 when Frenchman Baron Pierre de
Coubertin decided to revive the ancient Greek tradition of celebrating
health, youth and peace with a sports festival. Baron de Coubertin created
the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the first modem Olympiad took
place in Athens in 1896. Since then the Olympic Games have been held every
four years with only two exceptions because of the two world wars.
Even though the modern Olympic Games embrace the whole world, the
connection with Greece is still very strong. A lighted torch is brought all
the way from Greece, carried by a relay of runners, in order to light the
Olympic Flame which bums all through the Games. As in ancient Greek times,
the competitors still take the Olympic Oath. The long-distance race is
still called the Marathon. Marathon was a village about 26 miles from
Athens. In the year 490 BC the Greeks defeated a powerful Persian army at
that spot. After the fierce day's fighting a soldier volunteered to bring
news of the victory to the anxious citizens of Athens. He ran all the way
and after gasping out the message. "Rejoice, we conquer!" he collapsed and
died.
One important rule of the Olympic Games is that the competitors must be
amateurs. This rule has been under a lot of pressure in recent years
because modem sport is so professional and competitive. Athletes train for
years to take part in the Olympics and some countries spend much more than
others on equipment and facilities. But despite these pressures, the
amateur rule remains.
In modern times the Olympic movement has become an enormous and expensive
organisation, It's controlled by the International Olympic Committee, which
consists of members from all the participating countries. The IOC is based
in Lausanne, Switzerland. It chooses the locations of both summer and
winter games (both take place once very four years, with winter games half
a year before summer Olympiads). It also controls the rules of the
competitions and selects new Olympic sports. The famous flag of the IOC
shows five rings of different colours linked together. The rings represent
the five continents.


NATIONAL SPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN
Many kinds of sport originated from England. The English have a proverb,
"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy". They do not think that play
is more important than work; they think that Jack will do his work better
if he plays as well. so he is encouraged to do both. Association football,
or soccer is one of the most popular games in the British Isles played from
late August until the beginning of May. In summer the English national
sport is cricket. When the English say: "that's not cricket" it means
"that's not fair", "to play the game" means "to be fair".
Golf is Scotland's chief contribution to British sport. It is worth noting
here an interesting feature of sporting life in Britain, namely, its
frequently close connections with social class of the players or spectators
except where a game may be said to be a "national" sport. This is the case
with cricket in England which is played and watched by all classes. This is
true of golf, which is everywhere in the British Isles a middle-class
activity. Rugby Union. the amateur variety of Rugby football, is the Welsh
national sport played by all sections of society whereas, elsewhere, it too
is a game for the middle classes. Association football is a working-class
sport as are boxing, wrestling, snooker, darts, and dog-racing. As far as
fishing is concerned it is a sport where what is caught determines the
class of a fisherman.
Walking and swimming are the two most popular sporting activities, being
almost equally undertaken by men and women. Snooker (billiards), pool and
darts are the next most popular sports among men. Aerobics (keep-fit
exercises) and yoga. squash and cycling are among the sports where
participation has been increasing in recent years.
There are several places in Britain associated with a particular kind of
sport. One of them is Wimbledon where the All-England Lawn Tennis
Championship are held in July (since 1877). The other one is Wembly - a
stadium in north London where international football matches, the Cup
Finals and other events have taken place since 1923.

TABLE TENNIS
Table tennis was first Invented in England in about 1880. At first the game
had several strange names: Gossima. Whiff Whaff and Ping Pong. It wasn't
until 1926 that the International Table Tennis Association was formed with
international championships and rules.
Although the game was invented in England British players don't have much
chance in international championships. It's the Chinese with their
fantastic speed and power who win almost every title. Table tennis looks
more like gymnastics when the Chinese start playing, with the ball flying
over the net at speeds of over 150 kilometres per hour.

RACING
There are all kinds of racing in England - horse-racing, motor-car racing,
boat-racing, dog-racing, and even races for donkeys. On sports days at
school boys and girls run races, and even train for them. There is usually
a mile race for older boys, and one who wins it is certainly a good runner.
Usually those who run a race go as fast as possible, but there are some
races in which everybody has to go very carefully in order to avoid
falling.
The most famous boat-race in England is between Oxford and Cambridge. It is
rowed over a course on the River Thames, and thousands of people go to
watch it. The eight rowers in each boat have great struggle, and at the end
there is usually only a short distance between the winners and the losers.
The University boat-race started in 1820 and has been rowed on the Thames
almost every spring since 1836.

SQUASH
Squash began at Harrow School in the mid-nineteenth century, but has since
worked its way Into almost every city and district in Britain and
throughout Europe.
Squash is one of the fastest games in the world. Two people play in a small
confined space surrounded by high walls with no net to keep them apart. The
aim is to get to the point at the centre of the court and to stay there.
Squash players hope that the game will make them stronger and fitter, but.
like many sports, squash can be very dangerous. The most obvious danger is
the small ball that shoots through the air extremely fast.

WINDSURFING
Windsurfing was invented in the mid-sixties by two southern Californian
surfers, Hoyle Schweitzer and Jim Drake. Surfers need strong rolling waves,
and hate days of calm sea. Schweitzer noticed that on days when waves were
not high enough to surf, there was often a strong wind and he set about
finding a way to use it.
His first experiments Involved standing on his surfboard holding out a
piece of sail cloth in his hands. Gradually he and Drake refined this idea
into a basic design for a sailboard, similar to a surfboard, but holding a
mast and a triangular sail which could be tilted and turned in any
direction. The windsurfer operates a boom which controls the amount of wind
in the sail, for speed and change of direction. Schweitzer immediately went
into business designing and making the new sailboards and taking the idea
abroad. By mid-seventies, the sport had spread to Holland, Germany and
France.

OLYMPIC GAMES IN LONDON
London was host for the first time in 1908. With 1,500 competitors from 19
nations, the Games were by now an institution of world-wide significance.
The programme, moreover, was augmented by the inclusion of Association
football (which appeared in 1900 but only in a demonstration match),
diving, field hockey, and ice hockey, as well as other sports since
discontinued.
The most dramatic episode of these Games was in the marathon, run from
Windsor to Shepherd's Bush in London, the site of a new stadium. Pietri
(Italy) led into the arena but collapsed and was disqualified for accepting
assistance from officials. The gold medal went to the second man home,
Hayes (USA), but Queen Alexandra, who was present opposite the finishing
line, was so moved by the Italian's plight that she awarded him special
gold cup. The 400 metres provided an opportunity for Halswelle (GB) to
become the only man in Olympic history to win by a walk-over. The final was
declared void after an American had been disqualified for boring. Two other
Americans withdrew from re-run final in protest, leaving Halswelle an
unopposed passage. Britain won the polo, and all the boxing, lawn tennis,
rackets, rowing, and yachting titles as well as five out of six cycle
races.

CHRISTMAS
The word "Christmas" is derived from the words "Christ's Mass" - the
celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. But although Christmas is
undoubtedly a Christian celebration, it is also true to say that it is an
unusual combination of pagan and Christian festivities.
A Christmas tree stands in everybody's living room at Christmas, shining
its good cheer around the room. Sitting on the very top of the tree is a
silver star surrounded by tiny lights. All the branches are hung with
silver bells, tinsel and sparkling lights. Around the base of the tree lie
the gifts and toys wrapped up in bright colourful paper.
The Christmas tree has spread its influence around the world. In fact
America adopted it before it found its way to England early in Queen
Victoria's reign. Now every Christmas British people are sent a huge fir
tree from Norway which stands in Trafalgar Square, in the centre of London,
shining down on all the people who gather on Christmas Eve.
In pre-Christian times evergreens, trees that remain green throughout the
year. were worshiped in Northern Europe as symbols of eternal life.
Mistletoe, hung up as a Christmas decoration is a symbol of love and
reconciliation.
Holly, a well-known Christmas decoration today, has Christian associations.
In Norwegian, Swedish and Danish, holly is known as "Christ's thorns", the
legend being that Christ wore a crown of holly thorns before his death.
Some people have seen associations between the word "holly" and "holy".
Giving presents goes back to Roman Saturnalia when good luck gifts of
fruit, pastry or gold were given to friends on New Year's Day. In Britain
the traditional day to give presents until relatively recently was December
26th and not as it is today, Christmas Day. December 26th is now known as
Boxing Day, for it was then that the priests of the Middle Ages opened alms
boxes to give to the poor.
Not all Christian customs and traditions are of ancient origin. Although
various people have claimed to have designed the first Christmas card.
William Egley, an English artist, seems to have the best claim. In 1842 he
designed his own card and sent it to one hundred of his friends. Today
three billion are sent annually in the United States alone.

HAPPY NEW YEAR
At midnight on 31st December bells will ring out around the world to
welcome the New Year. Although certain countries and religions calculate
time by other calendars most countries in the world now number their years
according to the Gregorian calendar introduced in the 16th century by Pope
Gregory XIII. This calendar was intended to overcome the confusion caused
by calculating time according to the moon's phases.
Bell ringing is one way of celebrating the arrival of a new year which is
common to all countries welcoming it at this time; but it is the
differences in their celebrations and customs which are intriguing.
In Europe traditions vary considerably, but most of them involve a meal or
special food. Swiss housewives bake special bread, rich in butter, eggs and
raisins. They also cook roast goose. Children go from house to house
greeting the occupants and receiving invitations to come inside. People in
Italy hold all-night parties, where salt pork lentils are included on the
menu. Lentils are supposed to be lucky and bring money - perhaps because
they look like small piles of gold coins. There is a practical reason for
meals featuring in these new year festivities. Most people stay up all
night, or at least until midnight to "see the New Year in", so sustenance
is essential. Also there is common superstition that if the new year begins
well it will continue like that.
So great efforts are made to provide an atmosphere of goodwill and plenty.
Parties are arranged a drink flow freely. In Spain it is a custom to eat ,
^ grapes at midnight and toast the new year in champagne. at family
gatherings. Groups of friends visit restaurants in Turkey intending to
spend the night in celebrations which include present giving. So a people
in Greece play cards, hoping that a win will bring them luck for a whole
year.

NEW YEAR'S DAY IN ENGLAND
The celebration of New Year's day varies according to the district. In the
south of England, the festival of Christmas, lasting 12 days from December
25th, runs on well into the New Year. The decorations of coloured streamers
and holly, put up round the walls, and of course the fir-tree, with its
candles or lights, are not packed away until January 5th. On the evening of
December 31st, people gather in one another's homes, in clubs, in pubs, in
restaurants, and hotels, in dance halls and institutes, to "see the New
Year in". There is usually a supper of some kind, and a cabaret, or light
entertainment. The bells chime at midnight. The people join crossed hands,
and sing "Auld lang syne", a song of remembrance.
On New Year's day all English schoolchildren make New Year resolutions.
They make up lists of shortcomings which they intend to correct. The chil'
dren. their mothers and fathers, and their friends laugh and have a good
time when they read them The children promise to keep them.
In the north, and in Scotland, particularly, the Year known as Hogmanay, is
very well kept up. The ceremonies are similar, but they have an added
called "first foot". This means opening your door to anyone who knocks it
after midnight, and who will then enter the house, carrying a piece of coal
or wood, or bread. The visitor is entertained with cakes and ale.
At the Jolly parties on New Year's eve and also on Burn's night, when they
commemorate their national poet (Jan. 25th), the Scottish people enjoy
eating their famous Haggis. This is a pudding, made from the heart, liver
and lungs of sheep or calf, minced suet, onions, oatmeal and seasoning, and
cooked in the animal's stomach. It is brought into the banqueting-hall or
dining room to the accompaniment of the bagpipes. Considerable quantities
of good Scotch whiskey are consumed during these celebrations.
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