Environmental problems.



          Introduction

        Ecology is a science, which studies the relationship between all
forms of life on our planet and our environment. This word came from the
Greek «oikos» which means «home». All living things are related to their
environment. The Earth is our common home and we must take care of it.
     Since ancient times Nature has provided Man with everything he needed:
food to eat, water to drink, wood for building and fuel for heating and
cooking. For hundreds of years Man used Nature’s sources and it seemed to
people that the resources of Nature had no end.
     With the industrial revolution our negative influence on Nature began
to increase. Big smoky cities with thousands of people, polluting plants
and factories can be found nowadays all over the world.
     Unfortunately, the idea of thinking about our planet and about the
consequences of our activity appeared not so long time ago as it could be.
Nowadays scientists from the different parts of the world try to solve
ecological problems, but it isn’t enough to do our planet clean. We must
protect our home all together, without any exceptions.
     This report is devoted to different ecological catastrophes and to
environmental protection. It summarizes the results of my survey into such
global problems like «greenhouse effect». The aim of my report is the
following: to show actual environmental problems, explain how they change
our life and try to find the possible ways to solve them.  I suppose that
this topic is very actual nowadays and I hope that this information will
appeal not only to my mind.


           Air pollution
     Air pollution is one of the main problems all over the world. Millions
of chimneys, buses, cars, plants, factories and other industrial
enterprises exhaust fumes and harmful substances into the atmosphere.
Poisoned air is the main reason why it is hard to breath in large cities
with big amount of plants and transport (example – Nijnii Tagil in the
Urals).
     Human activity has been increasing the concentration of such gases
like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapor in the
atmosphere. Scientists expect to see a doubling of carbon dioxide over pre-
industrial levels around the year 2065.
     Every year the atmosphere is polluted by about one thousand (1000)
tons of industrial dust. Among industries especially toxic wastes are made
by enterprises of colour metallurgy, chemical, petrochemical, black
metallurgy, woodworking, pulp paper industry etc. Big cities suffer from
smog.
     «Leaders» of wastes of harmful substances in an atmosphere in Russia
during three last years are Krasnoyarsk region, the Tyumen, Sverdlovsk,
Chelyabinsk, Kemerovo area and it is necessary to attribute this areas to a
zone of the ecological catastrophe. The most contaminated regions are
economic centers of Russian Federation and most populated. Now 2/3
population of Russia continues to live in conditions of dangerous air
contamination.
           Various chemical elements are intensively absorbed by our
organism during breathing, it is harmful for our health. Air pollution is
especially harmful for quality of genofond.
          Scientists say that air pollution is the cause of acid rains,
global warming and of greenhouse effect. I’d like to tell you some facts on
this topic.

        What is the greenhouse effect?
     The greenhouse effect is unquestionably real; it is the essential for
life on the Earth. It is the result of heat absorption by certain gases in
the atmosphere (called greenhouse gases because they trap heat) and re-
radiation downward of a part of that heat. Greenhouse gases are:
    . Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when
      solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood and
      wood products are burned.
    . Methane. Methane is emitted during the production and transport of
      coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from the
      decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills,
      and the raising of livestock.
    . Nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and
      industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and
      fossil fuels.

      Naturally occuring greenhouse gases also include water vapor, ozone
and few other gases.
     Without a natural greenhouse effect, the temperature of the Earth
would be about zero degrees F (-18°C) instead of its present 57°F (14°C).
     Human activity has been increasing the concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. There is no scientific debate on this point. Pre-
industrial levels of carbon dioxide (prior to the start of the Industrial
Revolution) were about 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv), current
levels are about 370 ppmv and the expected level for the year 2065 is 560
ppmv. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased nearly 30%, methane
concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations
have risen by about 15%.
     Scientists apologize that the increasing of the concentration of
greenhouse gases and chemicals in the atmosphere lead to the global
warming.
     Global warming is a changing of the climate on the Earth that made
life on the Earth possible.
     What are the potential effects of rising temperatures? Why do we call
global warming an environmental problem? In general scientists believe that
rising temperature will lead to increase evaporation and therefore to more
precipitation. But while some regions will experience increased rainfall,
others will become dryer. Another effect is the rise of the sea levels,
which will result in flooding low-lying coastal areas. This may also lead
to increasing the salinity of the rivers and to decrease of water supplies.
And finally climate changes may cause extinction of many species of birds,
animals and plants. Even now a lot of species of animals, birds, fish and
plants have either disappeared completely or on the verge of extinction.
     Solutions to global warming - clean energy, energy efficiency and new
environmentally sound technologies - already exist. The latest report from
the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says that hundreds of
technologies are already available, at very low cost, to reduce climate
damaging emissions and that government policies need to remove the barriers
to these technologies.

     Implementing these solutions will not require humans to make
sacrifices or otherwise impede their quality of life. Instead, they will
enable people to usher in a new era of energy, one that will bring economic
growth, new jobs, technological innovation and, most importantly
environmental protection.

     Wind power is already a significant source of energy in many parts of
the world. It can supply 10 percent of the world's electricity within two
decades.

     Solar power has been growing in a global capacity by 33 percent
annually. Greenpeace and industry research shows that with some government
support, the solar industry could supply electricity to over 2 billion
people globally in the next 20 years.

     By 2040 solar photovoltaics could supply nearly 25 percent of global
electricity demand.

     A report conducted by global financial analysts KPMG shows that solar
power would become cost competitive with traditional fossil fuels if the
production of photovoltaic panels was increased to 500 megawatts a year.

     A renewable power plant in Asia could have the same costs and provide
the same jobs as a coal-fired plant, but with significant environmental
advantages.

     Greenfreeze refrigeration technology, which is safe for the climate
and the ozone layer, has spread around the world. It is an ideal solution
for developing countries where cost and efficiency are particularly
important.
     Oil companies must stop exploring for more fossil fuels that the world
cannot afford to burn. Governments need to subsidize renewable energy and
force polluters to pay.


        Acid rains

     First of all I should say that the only place on earth where pure
water is found is in a laboratory. Rainwater always contains small amounts
of impurities. These impurities come from dust particles or are absorbed
from the gases in the air. If pure water is exposed to the air it absorbs
carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid and becomes slightly acidic, dropping
from pH 7 i.e. neutral, to pH 5,6. Even in remote, unpopulated areas rain
can reach a pH of 4,5. However, a pH of less than 4,5 in rain is almost
certainly caused by air pollution.
     Acid rain is caused by the release of the sulphur dioxide and nitrous
oxides. The main sources of sulphur dioxide are coal-fired power stations
and metal working industries. The main sources of nitrous oxides emissions
are vehicles and fuel combustion.
     Sulphur dioxide reacts with water vapor and sunlight to form sulphuric
acid. Likewise nitrous oxides form nitric acid in the air. These reactions
take hours, or even days, during which polluted air may move hundreds of
kilometers. Thus acid rain can fall far from the source of pollution.
     When mist or fog droplets condense they will remove pollutants from
the air and can become more strongly acid than acid rain. Even snow can be
acid. Gases and particles, not dissolved in water, with a low pH can also
be deposited directly onto soil, grass and leaves. It is possible that even
more acidity is deposited in this way than by rain! Not much is known about
this process, and it is particularly difficult to study.
     There are some undoubted effects of acid rains:
    . Acid rains can increase the acidity of lakes, dams and streams and
      cause the death of aquatic life.
    . Acid rain can increase the acidity of soil, water and shallow
      groundwater.
    . Acid rain has been linked with the death of trees in Europe and North
      America. In spite of a great deal of research, no one yet knows
      exactly how acid rain harms forests. Most of the forests of Europe
      consist of huge areas of one tree species. This encourages the spread
      of plant pests and diseases. It seems likely that acid rain weakens
      the trees, perhaps helped by other pollutants such as ozone, and then
      leaves the trees open to attack by disease. Acid rain also disrupts
      the availability of soil nutrients. The final death of a tree may
      result from a combination of stresses such as heat, cold, drought,
      nutrient disruption and disease.
    . Acid rains erode buildings and monuments.
    . Acid particles in the air are suspected of contributing to respiratory
      problems of people.
     Scientists have many ways to solve this environmental problem. We need
to use energy more efficiently at home, in our vehicles and in industry. We
will have to think hard about alternative energy sources.  It is possible
to remove acidic emissions from coal burning, but this is very expensive.
It may be possible to breed crops and trees that resist pollution, but this
would only be a partial solution. In practice we will probably need a
combination of all these ideas and innovations.

        Measures of the protection of atmosphere
     Measures of the protection of atmosphere are subdivided into three
large groups:
    . First group: decrease measures of gross amount of contamination,
      thrown out into atmosphere. This is the improvement of the quality of
      fuel, using of special liquids in fuel etc. Same group of measures
      includes perfecting of technological processes including development
      of the closed cycle production without making of harmful substances
      into atmosphere.
    . The second group includes measures of protection of atmosphere by
      dispersion, processing and neutralization of harmful wastes.
    . The third group of measures assumes prevention of the air
      contamination by rational placing of the «dirty» enterprises – sources
      of harmful wastes with consideration of natural conditions and
      potential possibility of the air contamination.
     For realization of atmosphere protection measures the strict state
control of air environment, economic and legal stimulation of measures for
control of its pollution are also important.

        Water pollution
     Comprising over 70% of the Earth’s surface, water is undoubtedly the
most precious natural resource that exists on our planet.  Without the
seemingly invaluable compound comprised of hydrogen and oxygen, life on
Earth would be non-existent: it is essential for everything on our planet
to grow and prosper.  Although we as humans recognize this fact, we
disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes, and oceans. Subsequently, we
are slowly but surely harming our planet to the point where organisms are
dying at a very alarming rate.  In addition to innocent organisms dying
off, our drinking water has become greatly affected as is our ability to
use water for recreational purposes.  In order to combat water pollution,
we must understand the problems and become part of the solution.

        What are the sources of water pollution?
     There are many causes for water pollution but two general categories
exist: direct and indirect contaminant sources.

     Direct sources include effluent outfalls from factories, refineries,
waste treatment plants etc.. that emit fluids of varying quality directly
into urban water supplies. In the United States and other countries, these
practices are regulated, although this doesn't mean that pollutants can't
be found in these waters.

       Indirect sources include contaminants that enter the water supply
from soils/groundwater systems and from the atmosphere via rainwater. Soils
and ground waters contain the residue of human agricultural practices and
improperly disposed of industrial wastes. Atmospheric contaminants are also
derived from human practices (such as gaseous emissions from automobiles,
factories and even bakeries).

      Contaminants can be broadly classified into organic, inorganic,
radioactive and acid. Examples from each class and their potential sources
are too numerous to discuss here.

        What are the effects of water pollution?
     The effects of water pollution are varied. They include poisonous
drinking water, poisonous food animals (due to these organisms having
bioaccumulated toxins from the environment over their life spans),
unbalanced river and lake ecosystems that can no longer support full
biological diversity, deforestation from acid rain, and many other effects.
These effects are, of course, specific to the various contaminants.

        What are the ways we can take to decrease this problem?
     Science provides many practical solutions to minimizing the present
level at which pollutants are introduced into the environment and for
remediating (cleaning up) past problems. All of these solutions come with
some cost (both societal and monetary). In our everyday lives, a great deal
can be done to minimize pollution if we take care to recycle materials
whose production creates pollution and if we act responsibly with household
chemicals and their disposal. Additionally, there are choices we make each
day that also can affect the quantity of pollutants our actions will
introduce into the environment. Heavily packaged foods, for instance,
contain boxes, cartons, bottles etc. made with polluting dyes, many of
which are released from groundwater at municipal land fills. Whether we
choose to drive to the corner store rather than walk or ride a bicycle will
determine how much we personally contribute to acid and hydrocarbon
emissions to the atmosphere (and ultimately to global fresh water
supplies).

     In the end, there are many choices on the personal and societal level
that we must make (consciously or not) that affect the amount of pollution
our town or country will be forced to live with. Our standard of living and
very way of life is based upon practices, which are inherently "dirtier"
than those of our distant ancestors, although they too polluted their
environment to some extent. Without taking a step backward in terms of our
standards of living, the answer seems to lie in a combination of many small
changes in our daily practices and paying more for goods and services, so
that manufacturers of various materials and drivers of automobiles (for
instance) will have cleaner devices with which to conduct their activities.


        Deforestation

     The tropical rainforests in Amazonia, Southern Asia and West and
Central Africa is the world’s greatest resource – the most powerful and bio-
actively diverse natural phenomenon on the Earth. Yet still it is being
destroyed just like other rainforests around the world. It is hard to
believe that every day over 200,000 acres of rainforest are burned on our
planet. That means that over 150 acres are lost every minute.
     Once I have heard a horrible idea. One of my classmates told me: «I
have never seen the rainforest you are talking about, so why should I
protect it? I don’t find it interesting!» I don’t agree with this point of
view.
     There are some reasons why does the tropical rainforest so important
for people from all over the world:
    . The tropical rainforest is natural recycle, provider and protector for
      our planet.
    . The tropical rainforest supports the ecosystem in the world.
    . The tropical rainforest provides us with oxygen we breathe.
    . The tropical rainforest is the richest biological incubator on the
      Earth. It supports millions of plant, animal and insect species – a
      virtual library of chemical invention. Maybe the new drugs are still
      awaiting discovery – drugs for AIDS, cancer, diabetes and arthritis.
      Many secrets and untold treasures await discovery with the medicinal
      plants used by shamans, healers and indigenous people of the
      Rainforest Tribes. So alluring are the mysteries of indigenous medical
      knowledge that over one hundred pharmaceutical companies and even the
      US government are currently funding projects studying indigenous plant
      knowledge and the specific plants used by native shamans and healers.
         The problem and the solution to rainforest destruction are both
economic. The destruction is caused by slash-and-burn agriculture, cattle
ranching, building of dams and highways, and mining. So, if landowners,
governments and people living in the rainforest were given a viable
economic reason not to destroy the rainforest, it could and would be saved.
Thankfully, this viable economic alternative exists.
     Many organizations have demonstrated that if the medicinal plants,
fruits, nuts, oils and other resources like rubber, chocolate and chicly
were harvested sustainably, rainforest land has much more economic value
than if timber were harvested or if it were burned down for cattle or
farming operations.

         Nuclear energy
     Nuclear energy is often called the energy of the future because of a
great amount of advantages, but millions of people are afraid of radiation.
On the one hand using nuclear power gives us more variety in fuel sources.
On the other hand is the remembrance about Chernobyl tragedy.  Different
countries use nuclear energy even now, but people from all over the world
suppose that using nuclear energy is a big mistake.
     There are some advantages of using nuclear:
    . Nuclear is the cleanest and least damaging to our environment. Since
      the energy released from splitting the uranium atom is so much greater
      than the energy released from combustion, the amount of land,
      materials, and fuel used, and wastes produced, are very much smaller.
    . Using nuclear power gives us more variety in fuel sources. It helps us
      avoid being dependent on other countries for only one or two types of
      fuels.
    . Nuclear isn’t limited by location and natural conditions (for example,
      the need for regular winds or sunshine).
    . Nuclear generation of electricity provides savings over coal
      generation because of lower fuel and transportation costs for nuclear.
    . Nuclear energy is the cheapest kind of energy.
     All mentioned above are «pluses» of nuclear energy. And now let’s talk
about minuses, about radiation.

        Radiation
     Radiation is a natural energy traveling in the form of waves or
particles. Some everyday examples are: the microwaves we use to cook food,
radio waves for radio and television, radar, X-rays used in medicine and
dentistry, and sunlight. We also receive radiation as a result of the
natural process of radioactivity. Materials that are radioactive are made
up of atoms that contain excess energy. These radioactive materials give
off their excess energy as radiation.
     The three kinds of nuclear radiation that come from the radioactive
materials are alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. All three types are present
in nature. The natural radiation from soil, water, and cosmic radiation
(the Sun) is called "background radiation."
      Alpha particles are the nuclei (centers) of helium atoms. They can be
blocked by a sheet of paper. Beta particles are high-speed electrons. They
can be blocked by a thin sheet of aluminum. Gamma radiation, like the
medical X-ray, consists of photons (electro-magnetic radiation), except
that gamma radiation comes from the atomic nucleus. X-rays are lower in
energy and come from the electrons around the nucleus. Gamma rays can be
blocked by several inches of lead, several feet of concrete, or a large
amount of water (for example, the 45-foot deep pools of water in which
spent fuel is stored).
The health effects of very high doses of radiation are serious. They also
are better understood than those of non-radiation hazards. Health effects
of the extremely low doses of normal background radiation that we receive
are so small that they can only be estimated. In fact, some studies show
that low doses of radiation may be beneficial to life.
Radiation at higher levels may have two kinds of health effects: somatic
and genetic. Somatic effects of radiation include a slightly increased
chance of cancer and life-shortening in the person exposed. Genetic effects
are those that may be passed on to the exposed person's offspring by
changes in the genes.
The units used to measure radiation are the rem and the millirem (1/1000th
of one rem). Individuals receive an average exposure from all sources of
about 360 millirems per year. This includes natural sources (such as rocks
and cosmic radiation) and man-made sources (such as X-rays). At less than
1000 millirem (or 1 rem), health effects on test animals are so small that
conclusions cannot be made. Radiation doses in excess of 25,000 to 50,000
millirem (25 to 50 rem) are typically required to cause minor blood changes
detectable only by laboratory examination. There are no other clinically
observable effects until a dose of more than 50,000 millirems (50 rems) is
received.
Radiation treatments are widely used in medicine to help cure patients with
some kinds of cancer. Doses of 5,000 rems are common. Much smaller doses of
radioactive materials are used as diagnostic tools. The health effects of
these levels of radiation help us more than they hurt us.
     From all sources, a usual person receives an average exposure to
radiation of about 360 millirems per year. Most of this comes from the
natural radiation in soil, water, rocks, building materials, and food. For
example, potassium is a common, naturally occurring radioactive element
found in many foods.
Radiation exposure from all commercial nuclear energy power plants has
averaged 0.01 millirem per person annually. Those who live near a nuclear
power plant receive less than 5 millirems per year. The federal limit for
people who work in nuclear power plants is a maximum of 5,000 millirems per
year. Utilities themselves normally have set their own limits even lower
than that.
      The guiding principle for releases from nuclear power plants is
ALARA, As Low As Reasonably Achievable. Plant operators pay continuous,
careful attention to assure themselves and the public that any radiation
releases are well below the levels of significant environmental or human
health effects. These levels are set by law and are based on data collected
for more than 50 years. The current exposure level is 5 millirems per year
at the plant boundary.
     It is impossible to operate a nuclear plant with absolutely no release
of radioactivity. The releases are normally not critical as far as human
health is concerned, and, in fact, contain fewer radioactivities than the
releases from comparable coal-fired plants.
     The amount of radioactivity released by a nuclear power plant is
monitored continuously to be sure it doesn't go above allowed levels. This
same monitoring equipment provides exact information about any accidental
release. More monitoring equipment and personnel are on hand for emergency
use. Teams practice environmental/radiation monitoring several times a year
in emergency drills with independent governmental agency personnel, who
also practice and participate.
     The greatest potential hazard from an operating nuclear power plant is
from the radioactive products created in the fuel. These come from the
fission process that generates the heat to make electricity. Plants are
designed to keep these fission products inside the plant.
     Every operating plant has plans in place to alert and advise the
residents as necessary in and emergency. These are local government plans
and are practiced each year with local civil authorities. These plans often
have been used for emergencies that have had nothing to do with a nuclear
plant. Such plans have never had to be used to evacuate the public in a
nuclear plant emergency.
     Before any nuclear plant can be built and go into service, the utility
must obtain many different licenses and operating permits from federal,
state and local agencies. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission requires that
its conditions be met and allows for public hearings to be held before the
Commission issues a construction permit. After construction is done, the
NRC issues an operating license, again after a public hearing. During and
after construction, the Commission stations full-time inspectors at the
plant. Other visiting inspectors are sent to do on-site inspections. This
assures that the plant is operated according to its license.
Each utility checks its plants for radioactive releases. The records are
sent to and examined by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the
Environmental Protection Agency. Abnormal conditions or operations are
reported to these agencies.

        Nuclear waste
     Since the first commercial nuclear power plant began producing
electricity in 1957, the total amount of accumulated spent fuel (classified
as high-level waste) is 9000 tons. For comparison, the Environmental
Protection Agency reported that in 1982, 46 million tons of poisonous waste
(that is, not nuclear) were disposed of. In comparison the amount of
nuclear waste is very small.
     Nuclear wastes are, for the same power output, some 3.5 million times
smaller in volume than the wastes from coal plants. High-level nuclear
wastes can be disposed of by diluting them with twice their own volume of
neutral materials as they are changed into glass or ceramic form. The
reprocessed waste volume form a 1,000 megawatt nuclear power plant would
fit easily under a typical dining room table. A coal plant of the same
capacity (1,000 megawatts) produces some 10 tons of waste per minute.
     After changing it to stable form, the volume of all nuclear waste
produced until the year 2000 (including low-level waste from the entire U.S
nuclear power industry) would fit into a cube 250 feet on each side. The
high-level waste portion would fit into a cube 50 feet on each side within
the 250-foot block.

     Low-level wastes contain little radioactivity. They require little or
no shielding, and no cooling. They are the discarded used, disposable
protective clothing from the medical facilities and nuclear power plants,
water-treatment resins and filters, compacted trash, contaminated lab
equipment, plastics, metals, and liquids. They are the result of good
housekeeping practice in which non-radioactive waste is separated from
slightly contaminated waste.

     Most low-level wastes are solidified, put into drums and buried at a
commercial disposal site. There they are placed at the bottom of trenches
(about 20 feet deep). At the Barnwell, SC, site, for example, trenches are
back filled with sand and covered in clay each day to keep moisture from
getting in. When full, trenches are mounded and capped with clay, and
finished off with a foot of topsoil. Grass is planted to help prevent
erosion. The collection, transportation and burial of low-level radioactive
wastes are all closely monitored and controlled by the Department of
Transportation and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
     When properly managed, these low-level wastes do not pose a hazard.
The industry now has 30 years of experience in handling and shipping these
materials. There never has been an accident with these wastes that had
serious health results due to radioactivity.
     The 1980 Low-Level Waste Policy Act makes each state responsible for
providing he disposal of its own waste. Also encouraged are joint efforts
among several states for a shared site.

        Conclusion
     In this report I tried to show how does the activity of a Man
influences on our common home. I have shown different kinds of pollution (I
mean water and air pollutions) and the consequences of wasting our
environment (for example, global warming, acid rains, greenhouse effect and
etc.).
     I suppose that our main problem is the following: we try to solve
ecological problems because it became hard to live with poisoned air and
water, but not because of their respect to the planet they live on and to
the birds and animals they live with. People try to take care of the planet
just because of their egoism.
     If we want to live on the clean Earth at least we should remember
about ecological culture. Ecological culture means respect of the nature
not only as our home, but also as a home of millions of species of insects,
animals and birds.
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